Saturday, 27 July 2019

Taj Mughal


Though not mysterious but legendary rather an older social demand that the invasion of Taj Mughal to Chitral and Gilgit must not be shrouded in mist, because of the reason of non availability of literature in Badakhshan. Our knowledge of political history is often tantalizingly vague and uncertain, precisely of the medieval period, which we may take as the beginning of 7th and 8th Century A.D. According to A.L. Basham author of the History of India that “history must be pieced together from passing reference in text both religious and secular from few dramas and works of fiction purporting to describe historical events, from the records of foreign travellers, and from many panegyrics or other references to reigning monarchs and their ancestors, which might have been engraved on rocks, pillars, temple walls, copper plates, title deeds of land grants etc.”1
   The early history of Gilgit-Baltistan look like a jigsaw puzzle with so many missing pieces; as same parts of the picture are fairly clear, but other parts may be re-constructed with the aid of controlled imagination. Despite of all the modern facilities of creativeness several gaps remains and that may never be filled. The middle age can be fixed with confidence, as the history of Gilgit-Baltistan is completely lacking of the interesting narratives of bright personalities, which refresh the study of history for the professional historians; but still there is much disagreement among the competent historians on several important subjects.
According to A.L. Basham the old traditional stories, folklores and undated history are the fundamental materials on which construction of a particular history are designed. The ancient historical and religious books are mostly undated and without reference but are accepted as an unchallenged authority, providing a strong groundwork for the researchers.2
Before the appearance of the Mongols, the Turk rulers of Central Asia performing under different names and titles were strongly fascinated to acquire and subjugate the Indian sub-continent; although, somehow successful, despite of the internal conflicts for the sake of personal benefits, but was struggling to acquire an empire according to their desire and aspirations.  Detailed historical account has been published in the Cambridge History of India volume III Chapter-III, page, 43-72. 3
By taking advantage of the weaknesses of the Turk Slave Kings of Central Asia and India, the Mongols then blown out in the entire Asia subjugating the rulers by massacring the poor people because of their affiliations to the rulers and faith thereon. From the year 1241 A.D, the Mongols established and proved themselves as a strong power; continually invaded India, defeated the monarchs and their ancestors of the Turk salve kings of India. Many of the commanders including the ancestors of the Slave Kings revolted and associated themselves with the Mongols. It is believed that after such incidents Taj-Uddin had returned to Central Asia, including Badakhshan as well, after having its association with the Mongols as appeared from the contents of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Cambridge History of India volume: III and Cambridge History of Iran volume: III.  As such the ancient kingdom of Gilgit perceived an invasion from Taj Mughal of Badakhshan.
The complete history of the Ismailies during the Alamut period at the time of their greatest glory may be too imaginative to explain. Another problem is the theological side of things, with the symbolic, meanings and teachings of the Ismailies needs hard reading, understanding and deep research. The orientation is also largely attributable to foreign-language literature, especially English, transcriptions of Arabic and Persian terminologies and names trying to distinguish from function, nickname, titular’s and titles as were in practice in the ancient time. It is generally observed that common names in Persian, Arabic and Turkish are translated with functions, nicknames and mostly titles not only remain within the person but purposefully further to the forefathers’ dawn to the family lines and dynasty.
We are in the habit to believe the authenticity of rock inscriptions without any counter verification and trust the contents of books or documents written or compiled by the foreigner having conceived through some interpreters, but do not trust the local traditions and backgrounds, which are considered more romantic than real for the historical purpose. Could it be an unfortunate behavior on the part of the local scholars of the new generation or an extreme vigilant to put the record straight just for nothing with the view to based the foundation of history on a solid grounds. A.L. Basham described that the references to reigning monarchs and their ancestors, old traditional stories, folklores and undated history are the fundamental evidences and materials on which re-construction of a particular history could be designed. All the books pertaining to faith and religion and mostly the ancient historical books are undated and without reference but are still accepted as an unchallenged authority, which is providing a strong foundation for the researchers.
According to the Cambridge History of Iran Vol. 5, a policy of “decentralized pattern of revolts was devised for appropriate to the times. There was no longer, after Malik-Shah’s death, a single all-powerful Saljuq ruler to be replaced. But even before his death, with the decay of a centralized bureaucracy, the Islamic lands had come to be increasingly parceled out in the hands of individual commanders of garrisons; to subdue the Saljuq domains meant subduing them all piecemeal. Even on the civilian side, the social structure put power in the hands of individuals of local standing, prominent ‘ulama-individuals whose power often resulted less from any special office dependent on a central authority than from relatively formal ties of local prestige and private patronage. There scarcely existed any single target for a military conquest by a regular organized army, conquest, which would have resulted in the submission of an obedient realm as had happened in Egypt. If the Ismailis were to win, it was reasonable to expect that, at least at first, it would be locality-by-locality, fort-by-fort. The same atomization of power suggested the use of an important auxiliary technique for achieving military and political aims. Where local authority was relatively personal, so that an official furnished with basically the same means of power as another official did not automatically succeed him, the elimination of a key individual could disrupt any social undertaking. Thus the death of Malik-Shah automatically terminated the expedition against Kohistan.4
It appears that according to the policy as devised under the atomization of power every local authority and individuals were allowed to use an important auxiliary technique for achieving military and political objectives. Where local authorities were relatively personal fundamentally with the same means of power as another official automatically succeed to achieve better political results and social undertakings.5

                  
Hasan bin Sabbah

  The Medieval history of the Gilgit region is linked to the Tarakhane ruling families. The historical links have successfully been discovered and identified with the great endeavors of the researchers and historians. Palola (Paṭola, Bolor, Balur, Palur, Po-lu-lo, Pou-lu, Po-lu) was an ancient kingdom dating back to the end of the 6th to the 8th centuries existed in the north of Pakistan the areas around Gilgit, Chilas and Ghizer, but inclusion of Baltistan region temporarily belonged to this kingdom still requires further research. According to the Chinese sources there was great Palola and little Palola in the region. Greater Palola extended from the area around the city of Gilgit alongside the Gilgit River through Ghizer and also included the south of Gilgit located Chilas, while little-Palola was associated with Yasin. Greater Palola was dominated by Tibet in the 8th century, while the small Palola, designated by the Tibetans as Bru-zha, was fiercely contested between China and Tibet. Sanskrit was used as the official written language. Buddhist rock paintings and bronze statues witnessed the detailed exploration mainly as carried by the German Indologist Oskar Von Hinuber. 6
According to Chinese sources, Palola was divided into two parts, namely Greater Palola and Edouard Chavannes established Little Palola as in 1903 and 1904. The descriptions of Chavannes were further supplemented in the book "The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia" by Christopher I. Beckwith referred to the period between 690-760 A.D. This was the time of armed conflict between the westward Tibetans and the Chinese for access to Central Asia.
The Tibetan source, which refers the documents of 2009 by Brandon Dotson are the three references to a country called Bru-zha. For the year 737/38 AD, the ancient annals reported that the Tibetan minister sKyes-bzang ldong-tsab undertook a campaign against the country of Bru-zha, thereby defeating the king (rGyal-po) of Bru-zha, according to which this (the Tibetan king) paid homage (Dotson, page. 120f). 7 The year 740/41 there is an entry that the Tibetan princess Khri-ma-iodine as a bride to the ruler of Bru-zha (Dotson, p 121f). Finally, it is reported for the year 747/48 that a Chinese army reached Wakhan and conquered Wakhan and Bru-zha Page.12 Brandon Dotson. The Old Tibetan Annals: Vienna 2009.8
A cursory glance of the contemporary rules indicates that the Abbasid caliph Nasir died in1225, and was succeeded by Zahir (1226), Mustansir (1242) and Mustasim (1258), the last of the dynasty. Jalaluddin Khwarazm-shah (1220-1231) was however completely ruling in Central Asia.9
The relation of the Ismailis with the Abbasids was improved, but relations of Khwarazm-shah with the Abbasids and Ismailis were however tensed. Chengis Khan defeated Jalaluddin Khwarazm-shah in 1221 on the bank of the Indus, and he had to spend three years in India.10’11
The impact of the continuous Mongolian invasions forced the Khwarizmi’s of Bukhara and Samarkand to escape, and most of them took shelter in the Ismaili territory in Kohistan.
In1227, Chengis Khan conquered the eastern region of Iran, but the Ismailis of Kohistan were unaffected by the initial phase of the operations and continued to enjoy their prosperity. On that juncture, an increasing number of the Sunni Muslim refugees, including numerous Ullamas of Khurasan, had taken asylum in the Ismaili towns of Kohistan. The Ismailis welcomed the refugees, and assisted them with their own available resources. In Kohistan, the Ismailis maintained an island of prosperity and stability providing benefit to all. 12
The Sunni jurist and historian, Minhaj Siraj Juzjani (1286), who spent his earlier years in the services of the Ghourid dynasty in India visited Kohistan three times between 1224 and 1226. He described in his 'Tabaqat-i Nasiri' (1260) that Shahab-ud-din bin Mansur Abul Fateh, the learned Ismaili governor of Kohistan was lavish in his treatment to these Sunni refugees in his mountain strongholds. He further emphasized in the 'Tabaqat-i Nasiri' (tr. by Ghulam Rasul Maher, Lahore, 1975, 2nd vol., pp. 230-31) that, 'I found him a person of infinite learning with wisdom, science, and philosophy, in such wise, that a philosopher and sage like unto him there was not in the territory of Khurasan. He used greatly to cherish poor strangers and travellers; and such Muslims of Khurasan as had come into proximity with him he was inclined to take under his guardianship and protection.13
In Kohistan, Rais al-Hasan bin Saleh called Munshi Birjandi, had compiled the Ismaili history, which was used by Rashid-ud-din in ‘Jamiut Tawarikh’. The names of several Dais who led the Syrian Ismailis, are known from the inscriptions at Masiyaf, Kahf and other strongholds, vide Epigraphie des Assassins de Syrie (JA, 9 series, ix, 1897, pp. 453-501) by Max van Berchem (1863-1903).
According to an inscription Tajuddin Abul Futuh bin Muhammad, an Iranian Da'i from Alamut came in 637/1240, who built the city wall of Masiyaf and its south gate in 646/1249 when the commander of the fortress was Abdullah bin Abil Fazal bin Abdullah. Ibn Wasil (d. 697/1298), the author of Mufarrid al-Kurub, a native of central Syria, was also personally acquainted with Tajuddin Abul Futuh.14
The Ismailis made their final approach to the Mongol's court in summer of 1246, on the enthronement of Guyuk (1246-1248), the next new Mongol's chief; Imam Allauddin Muhammad, along with the Abbasid caliph al-Mustasim 1242-1258) and many other Muslim rulers, sent a mission in the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The Ismaili ambassadors, Shahabuddin and Shamsuddin, the former governors of Kohistan delivered a memorandum to Guyuk. Neither they nor the Abbasid ambassador were well received, and on that juncture, the Mongol demonstrated a negative attitude towards the Muslim rulers. Halagu was yet in Samarkand and was about to cross Oxus on the eve of the death of Imam Allauddin Muhammad, who, according to Peter Brent, might have been strong enough to resist for a long time against the Mongols.15’16
The Slave dynasty ruled from 1206 to 1290; actually started from the Ghourid dynasty lasted from 1292 in India and established control over some of the new areas. The phenomenon of salve kings started in the 9th century and gradually they became a powerful military class in various Muslim societies notably in Central Asia and India. In 1206, the Ghourid Empire ended in India. Taj-ud-Din Yaldoz (a salve general) became the ruler of Ghazni. Bakhtiyar got Bengal and Nasir-ud-Din (Qabacha) became the ruler of Multan, Qutab ud-Din (Aibak) became the ruler of Delhi, and that was the beginning of the Slave dynasty. The Sultanate under Iltutmish established cordial diplomatic contact with the Abbasid Caliphate between 1228–29 and had managed to assassinate the Ismaili population of Delhi. The remaining successors and rulers with different titles either fled away or subjugated to Genghis Khan and his successors.
The Islamic history is very interesting, full of conspiracies, intrigues, romantic and confusing especially with reference to the Persian and Urdu contents of the historical accounts of the Saljuqs, Turks and slave rulers of India having with numerous entitlements designations, and privileges. According to the famous Sunni jurist Moulana Siraj-u-Minaj Juzjani at Page-687- 695, in his book of history Tabaqat-i-Nasiri that Fakhar-ud-din Mas’ud and his son Shamsuddin Muhammad ruled over Thukharistan (Badakhshan) and Bamyian including the entire hill region during the year 1214.17

Moulana Siraj-u-Minaj Juzjani has further described in the ‘Tabaqat-i-Nasiri’ at Page 686, that when Allaudin Muhammad got himself free from the battle, he handed over the rule to Fakharuddin Mas’ud, who conquered the surrounding regions of Thukharistan including Shighnan, Darwaz, Bolor (Gilgit) and Vakhš with the region of Badakhshan. He further emphasized that the sons of Fakharuddin Mas’ud were brave and competent, who compromised with Taj-ud-din Yaldoz on the condition that the region of Khurasan attached with Ghour be handed over to Malik Fakharuddin Mas’ud. Fakharuddin Mas’ud had many sons but three of them were very famous including Shamsuddin, Taj-ud-din, and Hissam-ud-din Ali.18
Yahya Amjad in the History of Pakistan page: 598-599 published in 1997 by Niaz Ahmad of Sangi-Meel Publications Lahore ISBN: 96935-0776-2: transcribed that Fakharuddin Mas’ud was son of Izzuddin Ahmad the ruler of Ghour. Izzuddin Ahmad had seven sons including Fakhar-ud-din Mas’ud. 19 He explained at Page 622 that Ghouri died on 8th March 1206 and According to Sir Wolseley Haig’s ‘The Cambridge History of India’ Page; 66 that on June 10th 1246, Mas’ud was deposed and thrown inside a prison, where he perished shortly afterward, doubtless by violence.
Javed Chaudary and Hasan Jaffrey described a brief historical account of Fakharuddin Mas’ud and Tajuddin Yaldoz in the their book.20’21
     
Tower of Taj Mughal at Jutial Gilgit in memory of his victory 
Nadia Eboo Jamal described at page 136, in his book ‘Surviving the Mongols’ Published by the Institute if Ismaili Studies London, that 
“Nizari makes no mention of the precarious political position of Shamsuddin in his Safar-nama nor does he tell us explicitly the purpose of the Wazir’s tour, or why he and Taj al-Din accompanied him. But from the poet’s account of the various military bases and encampment they visited subsequently, it was evidently connected with the organization of a large army of Mongol, Turkish etc. who were then assembling in the frontier area of northern Adharbayjan.”22
At page: 148: Urdu translation of Dr. Aziz-ullah Najeeb, explained that Taj-Al Din was an agent of the Al-Khanid dynasty and was responsible for tax collection, but official position of Taj-ud-din was unknown. However, he was a legitimate official of the state and a companion with Nizari to disseminate the mission of Ismaili Da’wa. Taj-ud-Din was probably son of prince Shamus-ud-din Muhammad.23  
Author of the ‘Surviving the Mongols’ Nadia Eboo Jamal explained-that “the role of Taj-al-Din Ahmad required little explanations, for as a senior official of the Il-Khanid treasury charged with tax collection in Adharbyjan…. Not only does he give us little information about the military movement taking place all around him, but he has little to say about the chief minister himself in whose company he travelled for many months. At no point he does tell us of having been introduced personally to the Wazir or of assisting Taj-al-Din in his official duties, even though he possessed first-hand experience of tax collection of Khurasan. Thus, the over all impression Nizari conveyed is that of being a detached observer rather then an active participant in this part of the journey, and his presence in the Wazir’s caravan may have been seen by others as that of the personal assistant or attendant to Taj-al-Din. These observations reinforce the view presented earlier that the poet was travelling with Taj-al-Din purely in a personal or private capacity.”24
It appears from the historical account of Moulana Siraj-u-Minaj Juzjani in the ‘Tabaqat-i-Nasiri’ that Taj-ud-din son of Fakhar-ud-din Mas’ud might had adopted the title of Taj Mughal and invaded the region of Bolor i.e. Gilgit and then might had associated himself with the Nizari. The corresponding chronology of the events almost matches as explained in “Tabaqat-i-Nasiri”, “Surviving the Mongols” and the “Cambridge History of India”. However, the history of Khwarizmin, Saljuqs, Ghourids and the Salve kings including the Mongols are silent on the subject except for the conquests of the sons of Fakharuddin Mas’ud, Taj-ud-din and Ali. The Cambridge History of Iran also narrated similar historical account as described in the Cambridge History of India. The history of Feroz-shahi explains the historical account with reference to the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri. The Tabaqat-i-Nasiri further indicated that a son of Shamsuddin was named as Tajuddin as well. 
The chronology of the Wiki sources are however, contradictory and does not matches with other sources as it claimed that Taj-ud-dun Zangi son of Fakharuddin Mas’ud died in 1205, where as the encyclopeadia of Iranica and the Cambridge History of India did not indicate such chronology.         
The prominent Sunni scholar and jurist Moulana Minhaj-u-Siraj Juzjani author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri who was an ardent biased and prejudiced of the Ismaili faith, used the words and terminologies such as apostate, agnostic and atheist against the Ismailis, described that during the reign of Shamsuddin Muhammad son of Malik Fakhar-ud-din Mas’ud of Tukharistan (Badakhshan) he with his brothers including Taj-ud-din Zangi conquered Chughanian, Vokhš, Jorum, Bolor (Gilgit), Shighnan Badakhshan and the whole of the  surrounding mountainous regions through his sons including Taj-ud-din Zangi as they were the administrator of Balkh as well; being courageous, capable and competent, as also confirmed and described by Alla-ud-din Atta-ul Mulk Muhammad Juveni in his book at Page: 386-387, Tarikh-i-Jehan Kushahai, edited by Muhammad Qizwani.25’26
Taj-ud-din travelled to the Sub-continent of India and took part in many events and returned to Central Asia might be because of some opposition and political differences and joined hands with the Mongols. 27
Many of the frustrated, displeased, discouraged and annoyed princes and personalities of the ruling families of Saljuqs, Ghourids and the Salve Kings revolted and joined the Mongols with the intentions to take revenge against the miseries, sufferings and despairs received during their affiliation with the ruling elites. As such the descendants of Fakhar-ud-din Mas’ud revolted and joined the Mongols and accepted the Ismaili faith in Badakhshan, which was also pronounced as Thukharistan by the Turks. 
The Buddhist Chinese monks, travellers and different military expeditions have portrayed Bolor (Gilgit) in their travelogues and stories of the military conquests from fifth to eight century A.D including the invasion of general Kao Chain Chih of T’ang Dynasty in A.D, 744. Mirza Hyder Dughlat has also explained the story of his expedition to Bolor in 16th century. There are several references of conquests from the north as explained by Sir Aural Stein in his books. The invasion of Taj Mughal is unique in the sense that he was not expecting to conquer the region and establish his rule over there, but to preach the Ismaili faith in the region.28
It was common tradition, practice and tendency of the ruling dynasties of Asia to choose titular names and titles taking advantage of their relation with a particular ruler with the consideration to demonstrate and display themselves as distinctive, unique and matchless before the public irrespective of the qualities, capabilities and competence. Taj-ud-din might have adopted the title of Zangi at the beginning and when bounded with the Mongols he might have chosen the title of Mughal.  
The Ismailis constituted a religious community in the Badakhshan region and primarily were based in Roshan, Shughnan, Wakhan, Zibak, Munjan and in other mountainous regions. The inhabitants of these regions were predominantly Tajiks and were practicing the Ismaili faith of Islam. During the Al-maut period in Persia (Iran), the Ismailies became politicized. After the collapse of the Ismaili Centre, in Alamut, in result of the Mongol invasion in 1257, that they remained subservient to concerned local and regional authorities. Governments in Afghanistan and the Sunni majority in Badakhshan victimized the Ismailis and were put in a position where they had to maintain a precautionary dissimulation of their faith in a hostile environment, thereby preserving their religious belief and literature to safeguarding their identity.
Badakhshan enjoyed a semi-autonomous status when the people of Badakhshan elected Yari Baig, son of Shah Baig, as the Amir/Chief of the region in A.D, 1068. Yari Baig ruled over Badakhshan but resigned several years later when the people of lower Yaftal elected Shah Emad as their Amir. Yari Baig was furious over the new development. He left Badakhshan and reached India. On hearing of Yari Baig's departure to India the Amir of Qutaghan organized an army, led an expedition to Badakhshan and established his rule over there. The cruelty and oppression of the new Amir of Badakhshan and his agents compelled the people of Badakhshan to appeal to Yari Baig to return to Badakhshan to pull them out from the misery.
Accordingly Yari Baig decided to return to Badakhshan from India, organized an army, and defeated the Uzbek invaders. After striking a fatal blow to Shah Emad and his supporters in Qala-e-Laiaba, Yari Baig became the ruler of Badakhshan. His status was further enhanced when he debarred the custodians of Prophet Mohammad's shroud in Bukhara to transfer the shroud to a safer place in India. Yari Baig seized the shroud and kept it in a house in the town of Yakmajal (Faizabad) where he built a mausoleum to house it permanently. He appointed several men from Samarkand as caretakers. These caretakers were known as Mutawali and their children inherited the right to the caretaker-ship. The town of Yakmajal was re-named Faizabad, meaning, `a blessed town'. 28’29
Yari Baig strengthened his rule over Badakhshan and ruled the region for fifty long years. He appointed his sons as Amirs in the following manners.
1.     Shah Suleiman Baig became the Amir of Jurm.
2.     Yusuf Ali was appointed Amir of Sada-e-Pasaku.
3.     Khawaja Niyaz was selected to be the Amir of Zardiev and Sar Ghulam.
4.     Khawaja Ishaq was appointed as Amir of Shiva.
5.     His fifth son, Shah Ismail Baig, was incharge of the regions of Keshm, Farkhar, Warsanj and Tangdarun.
6.     His sixth son, Ziauddin, ruled over Barghanj.
7.     His seventh son, Mir Alugh Baig was appointed as Amir of Kuran-Munjan.
Yari Baig died in A.D, 1118 and after his death, his children and grandchildren fought each other for control over the region. Their conflict significantly weakened the strength of their rule over the region. The struggle and conflict of power between them badly disintegrated their rule, which resulted in the invading Uzbeks subjugating them. For centuries various invaders ruled Badakhshan, like the Seljuks, Khawarzumain, Ghouris and the Slave Kings. The Ismailis who had resisted and survived the conquests and the devastation formed by invaders in the past, were once again victimized suppressed and subjugated beneath the Sunni legal and judicial authority under the Sunni majority in Badakhshan.30

The Ismailis suffered the Mongol invasion headed by Hulegu and the execution of the Nizari leader, Rukn al-Din, Khur-shah and his family in 1257. 31
The Mongol and subsequent military conquests by hostile rulers forced a large number of Ismailis of Persia and Central Asia to seek refuge in the safety of the Pamir Mountains in Badakhshan. The Pamir region was partitioned between the Russian empire and Afghanistan in 1895 and the Oxus River, for the most part, separates Gorno-Badakhshan from Badakhshan province of Afghanistan. 32
It is believed that Ismailism established its influence in Central Asia during the early period of the Fatimid Empire in Egypt. A well-known Ismaili philosopher and scholar Ahmad Yaqub Sajze was assassinated in Bukhara in 331/942 as he was the author of the theoretical works of: Kashf al-Mahjub [the discovery of the essence], Asas al-Da'wa [the foundation of propagation], Tavil-e-Shariya [interpretation of Islamic law], Sus al-Baqa [eternal life], Ketab al-Etehad [the book of unity] and Esbat al-Nabuwa [the proof of prophecy]. Other prominent Ismaili philosophers of this period were the famous Persian poet Abul Hasan Rudaki (d.940) and Abu Ali Hussein, son of Cina, also known as Avecinna (981). 33’34
During the reign of Mahmood of Ghaznavid (997-1030) Ismailis were persecuted and massacred because of their religious and social dynamic advancement, intellectual abilities and above all their political affiliation with the Fatimid Empire in Egypt.
The spread of the Ismaili faith in Badakhshan is due in large part to the works of Ismaili dais, missionaries who visited the region prior to and during the Alamut period. One of the more effective methods the dais used to propagate the doctrine was to approach and persuade local chiefs and the princes to embrace the faith, then later use their influence to encourage their subjects to convert them to the Ismaili faith.
Ghiyath was the first Dai who visited Afghanistan, when he was forced to leave his native town, Ray, in southern Tehran. In Marv he succeeded to influence Al-Husayn Al-Marwazi, a tribal chief to accept the Ismaili faith, who was ruling over Maymana, Taliqan, Herat, Gharijistan and Ghour. Al-Marwazi was later elected as chief of the Ismaili communities of Afghanistan.35
Abu Muin Nasir-e-Khusraw was another prominent Ismaili figure whose works contributed to the perpetuation of the Ismaili faith. Nasir-e-Khusraw was born to a wealthy family in 1004 in the Qubadian district of Balkh province and served as a government financial administrator in Marv, with access to the Ghaznavid court at Balkh prior to the Seljuk invasion in 1040. At the age of 40 Nasir-e-Khusraw went to Egypt where he met the Ismaili Imam, Al-Mustansir-billah, and was appointed as the Hujjat, Imam's representative, to the eastern realm of the Fatimid Empire. Nasir-e-Khusraw returned to Badakhshan in 1052 and began preaching Ismaili doctrines. His religious propagation and writings antagonized conservative Muslim clerics who incited people against him. Nasir-e-Khusraw sought refuge in the Yumgan valley and concentrated on writing religious and philosophical treaties. Nasir-e-Khusraw died around 1072-73 and was buried in Yumgan where his shrine is zealously guarded by Ismailis and non-Ismailis alike.36
After the death Nasir-e-Khusraw Ismailis in Badakhshan remained isolated from the rest of the Ismaili community until several years later, when two Iranian Dais visited Badakhshan. The first was Sayed Shah Malang, who settled in Shughnan and was able to establish his authority in the region. The second was Sayed Hasan Shah Khamush, son of Sayed Haider Shah, supervised Ismaili affairs in Shughnan and its adjacent areas. Khamush was born in 459/1079 in Isfahan and received his religious education at home. 37
The dissemination of the Ismaili faith in central Asia is also the result of works by Ismaili philosophers who disguised and camouflaged themselves as Sufis/mystics in order to escape persecution and political repression. Ismailis maintained that well-known philosophers such as Sanai (d.ca. 535/1140), Farid al-Din Attar (d.ca. 627/1230), Jalal al-Din Rumi (d. 672/1273), Qasim al-Anwar (d.ca. 837/1433) and Aziz al-Din Nasafi (d.ca. 1262-63) are their co-religionists and their writings have been kept in Badakhshan as Ismaili works.38
The Sunni jurist and historian, Minhaj-u-Siraj Juzjani, who spent his earlier years in the services of the Ghourid dynasty in India, had visited Kohistan three times between 621/1224 and 623/1226. He writes in his Tabaqat-i Nasiri (comp. 658/1260) that Shahabuddin bin Mansur Abul Fateh, the learned Ismaili governor of Kohistan was generous in his treatment to these Sunni refugees in his mountain strongholds. He further writes in Tabaqat-i Nasiri (tr. by Ghulam Rasul Maher, Lahore, 1975, 2:230-31) that, 
"I found him a person of infinite learning with wisdom, science, and philosophy, in such wise, that a philosopher and sage like unto him there was not in the territory of Khorasan. He used greatly to cherish poor strangers and travellers; and such Muslims of Khorasan as had come into proximity with him he was wont to take under his guardianship and protection. On this account his assemblies contained some of the most distinguished of the ulama of Khorasan; and he had treated all of them with honor and reverence, and showed them much kindness. They stated to this effect, that, during those first two or three years of anarchy in Khorasan, one thousand honorary dresses, and seven hundred horses, with trappings, had been received from his treasury and stables by ulema and poor strangers."
The local Ismailis of Kohistan lodged complaints to Alamut about the negative effects of the generous hospitality from the state treasury. Thus, Shahabuddin was summoned to  Alamut, and a new governor, Shamsuddin Hussain Ikhtiyar was appointed in his place. The latter also came to be equally admired by the Muslim refugees because of similar lavish treatment, but he was not called back to Alamut.
In the meantime, Alamut gave asylum to Ozbeg’s son, Malik Khamush, and to Jalaluddin’s brother Ghyasuddin, who were dismissed from their posts by the Khwarazm-shah in 1228. The Ismailis helped Ghyasuddin despite the Khawarazmian’s blockade of the route. Halagu was in Samarkand on the eve of the death of Imam Alauddin Muhammad.  According to Peter Brent, was strong enough to resist for a long time against the Mongols. 39
It will not be out of place to mention that Alhaj Molvi Hashmatullah Khan, who had started his research during his stay in Gilgit from 1894 to 1902 as representative of Maharaja of Kashmir. During his service he learned many languages including Shina, Kowhai, Tibetan and Balti. He was facilitated by his friend and teacher Nono Chatan Paljor of Murian and provided him a magazine of Wazir Zorawar Singh Klahoria. However, after great effort and research, he got his book published under the title of Tarikh-e-Jammu in 1936. The invasion of Taj Mughal is briefly been explained in his book at Page: 682- 684. All the scholars and researchers considered the description as an authentic reference on the grounds that why the Ismailies were called and pronounced with the name of Mughali. 40
According to Dr. Fareedun Zaman Muhammad Namus, author of Shina Language, that Ismaili faith was disseminated in the region in result of the invasion of Taj Mughal from Central Asia during the reign of Raja Tara Khan, who himself adopted the Ismaili faith. The Ismaili faith was pronounced as Mughali, which transformed later as Moulai.41
Mirza Ghufran an ardent Sunni scholar and the author of “History of Chitral”, who had written the History of Chitral in Persian in 1919, later his son got it translated in Urdu under the title of (Nayi Tarikh-i-Chitral) described that Taj Mughal was an Ismaili Da’i, who invaded Chitral in 1320 through the Yar-Khon valley and also conquered Gilgit. The ruler of Gilgit surrendered before him and accepted the Ismaili faith. Taj Mughal returned to Yarkand via Sariqul.42
Colonel R.C.F. Schomberg described in his book ‘Between the Oxus and Indus’ at page 250 stating that Sou Malik refused to pay tribute to Badakhshan, Taj Mughal invaded the territory of the Raja Of Gilgit, but he defended his land and Taj Mughal fled back to his own land. 43
The Trakhane were the leading dynasty of local rulers of the Gilgit region. The rulers of Hunza and Nagar emerged during the mediaeval period and the states of Hunza Nagar were divided between Girkis and Maghlot in the year 1440. (Dani; History of Northern Areas) The rulers of (Warshighum) Yasin, Punial, Ishkoman and Chitral had close relations with the Trakhane rulers of Gilgit. Similarly the tribal regions of Gor, Chilas, Darel, Tangir, and Herban, including Nuristan with Chitral on the west had their origin and historical linkages with the Trakhane dynasty of Gilgit.
‘The History of Gilgit’ by Raja Shah Rais Khan has jointly been edited by Professor Ahmad Hasan Dani (Hon. Director) Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia Quaid-i-Azam University. Islamabad with the assistance of Late Mr. Abdul Hamid Khawar AIG Police and Mr. Akbar Husain Akbar described that “the author does not know much about the non-Muslim period of the history of the Trakhan dynasty except that of the family of Sri Badad. It is only the Pre-Trakhan rulers who are said to be Buddhists but later Islam is brought to Gilgit right in the beginning of the Trakhan ruling house. This Islam is said to be Sunnite in belief and only occasionally Shia influence is brought here later. As far as the spread of Ismailism is concerned, the author traces it to the influence of the traditional Taj Moghul.” 44
The reign of Torra Khan dynasty ended around 1236 with the invasion of Gilgit by Taj Mughal of Badakhshan. Taj Mughal introduced the Ismailia doctrines whose followers now comprise the Molai Sect, Taj Mughal's religious interest reached up to Kashgar. 45
Professor Ahmad Hasan Dani (Hon. Director) Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad with the assistance of Late Mr. Abdul Hamid Khawar AIG Police and author of ‘Dardistan’ and Mr. Akbar Husain Akbar author of the History of Nagar have further evaluated the contents of the History of Gilgit by Raja Shah Rais Khan and narrated that, “Chapter-V begins with the history of the thirteenth ruler Raja Torra Khan-I, who ruled from A.D. 1241 to 1275. It is said that from his time the name dynasty of Torra (or Tra-) Khan" was applied, but before his time the dynastic title is given as Waliyan-i-Khandan-i-Kisra or Kiyani. However, as commented earlier, this appears to be a mistake. The ethnic name Trakha was known much earlier, as is proved in the Hunza Rock Inscription. On the other hand it is quite possible that the new marital connection established with Badakhshan could re-strengthen the status of the dynastic name. Accordingly the new ethnic title Trakhun appears to be more political than hereditary. Strangely enough, such a political development is seen in the career of the stepbrother Shah Rais Khan, who left Gilgit alongwith his men and sought shelter in Badakhshan, where, it is said, a king named Taj Mogal was ruling. The refuge of Shah Rais in Badakhshan was hardly possible as long as Torra Khan's maternal relatives were powerful there. It seems that at this time there was also a change of the ruling dynasty even in Badakhshan. That change must have taken place from the hands of the Tatar Turks into the hands of the Mongols, and hence the name of the new Badakhshan ruler is given as Taj Moghul. Actually there is no such king known to history. But certainly at this time the region came under the control of the Mongols after the conquest of the Mongol chief Chingiz Khan. If this reconstruction is correct, the name is only a title and it should be corrected as Tajdar-i-Mogal, meaning "King of the Mongols."
The territorial extent of Taj Mogal, as given in the text, is very extensive, spreading up to Herat in the south-west, to Chitral in south and greater part of Turkestan in the north - a territory as extensive as the possession of Chaghatai,' one of the four sons of Chingiz Khan. The only mistake made in the text, is that Taj Mogal is said to be an ardent follower of Ismailism when actually the Mongols at this time were Buddhists, though Ismailism had certainly been adopted in Badakhshan as we learn from the Persian poet Nasir-i-Khusrau. This Taj Mogal is said to have welcomed Shah Rais, treated him well and gave him his daughter. Shah Rais accepted the Ismaili faith. Taj Mogal then bent on spreading Ismailism, is said to have invaded Chitral and Gilgit. The text has it that Ismailism was also adopted here at this time. Raja Torra Khan accepted Ismailism and thus avoided conflict with Taj Mogal. Besides accepting Ismaili faith, he ceded Chitral and the neighbouring areas to his stepbrother Shah Rais. While in Gilgit, Taj Mogal is credited to have built minar at Henzel, another at Tho1and a third at Jutial. As these constructions are not minars, as known from their surviving ruins but Buddhist stupas, it is clear that the invader was a Buddhist, and not an Ismaili. However, the author maintains that Ismaili faith spread at this time in Chitral Yasin, Ishkoman, Koh Ghizer, Punyal and even in Hunza. On the return of Taj Mogal the Gilgit ruler reverted back to his Shia faith. Shah Rais became very unhappy with this changed attitude of the Gilgit ruler and he reported this change to Taj Mogal, who once again invaded Gilgit all by himself. Raja Torra Khan made all the preparations for defence but while malting these arrangements, he died at the young age of fifty-three. He was succeeded by his son Raja Sau (Su) Malik-I1 at the age of twenty-four. He ruled for seventy long years from A.D. 1275 to 1345. After the death of his father he commanded the forces of Gilgit and advanced to meet the attack of Taj Mogal by deploying his troops from the fort of Gilgit towards Golapur on both banla of the Gilgit River. Shah Rais accompanied the invader with his Chitrali forces but did not actively participate in the battle. For eight days fighting went on and finally Taj Mogal's forces were routed. The Gilgiti forces got the upper hand and they penetrated right into Ghizer area, and even to the border of Chitral, and punished the local people for siding with Taj Mogal. This high-handedness of the Gilgiti people created enmity between them and the people of Ghizer.” 46
In the History of civilization of Central Asia, Volume IV, page 217, edited by M.S Asimov and C.E Bosworth, complied and authored under the UNESCO it is briefly narrated that, “Rajah Torra Khan‘s reign (1241-12754) was marked by great events His own stepbrother, Shah Rais Khan born of a Dareli queen fled from Gilgit and took shelter with the king of Badakhshan, whose name given as Taj Mughal, perhaps to be corrected as Tajdar-i-Mughal, who is said to have been a follower of the Ismaili Shi’ite Sect. The Badakhshan ruler invaded Gilgit, snatched Chitral from Torra Khan and placed Shah Rais Khan on Chitral’s throne. This was the beginning of the Ra’isiyya Dynasty there. According to tradition Ismailism was introduced to Gilgit Region by Taj Mughal but this lacks confirmation. In any event the ruler of Gilgit is said to have abundant Ismailism. As a result there was a second invasion, but Gilgit forces defended their territory steadfastly. In the course of this campaign Rajah Torra Khan died, he was succeeded by his son Sau Malik-II (1275-1345)” 47  
Professor Ahmed Hussan Dani explained in detail with reference of Shah Rais Khan stating that, “the dynasty was applied in the name of Trakhan (or correctly Torra Khan). Before him the dynasty was called Kisra of Kiyani. During his reign his cousin Raja Shah Rais Khan left Gilgit along with his followers and took shelter with the King of Badakshan who’s name is given as Taj Mughal. In the history of this ruler of Badakshan both Hashmatullah Khan and Shah Rais Khan agree but unfortunately there is no other historical record.
Shah Rais places an extensive territory under the rule of Taj Mughal. On the north greater part of Turkestan, on the west the whole area including the city of Herat and on the southeast right up to the border of Chitral. Taj Mughal is said to be a follower of Ismaili sect and very ardent in its propagation. He received Raja Shah Rais Khan with great pomp and shows and made him stay in an elegant place. Shah Rais is said to have accepted Ismaili faith along with his followers. He also became a son-in-law of the ruler of Badakhshan. After some years Raja Shah Rais persuaded Taj Mughal to invade Gilgit. Preparations were made for one full year. First Chitral was conquered and annexed. Then the areas of Yasin, Koh Ghizer and Punial were occupied and then the Mughal forces advanced towards Gilgit. Torra Khan had no alternative but to accept Ismaili faith himself and agreed to the terms of Taj Mughal. Shah Rais was made the ruler of Chitral and thus the Raisia dynasty of Chitral was founded. It was at this time that Ismaili faith was also propagated in Nagar and Hunza. It is also said that at this time Taj Mughal built “Mughlai tower” at Jutial and another on way to Hunza near Thol.
The identification of Taj Mughal is very difficult because in the history of Badakshan there is no such king bearing the name of Taj Mughal. On the other hand it is well known that Mongols conquered Central Asia at the time of Chingiz Khan. The territorial extent of Taj Mughal is very vast, almost the same as was under the possession of Chaghatai, one of the four sons of Chingiz Khan. The only mistake made in the text is that Taj Moghal is said to be an ardent follower of Ismailism when actually the Mongols at this time were Buddhists. The very fact that a reference is made to the so-called “minars” at Jutial and Thol shows the ardent love of this monarch to these monuments. They are actually Buddhist stupas, and not just “minars”. It is therefore very likely that the invading monarch was a Mongol leader and that this invasion was a part of the territorial expansion of the Mongols. Hence the king’s name should actually be corrected by some such title as Tajdar-i-Moghal. However, it is known from works of Nasir-i-Khusrau that Ismailism had already spread in Badakshan. But there is no evidence to show that at this time Ismaili faith was introduced in this part.
What follows this event has been differently related by Hashmatullah and Shah Rais Khan. According to Hashmatullah Khan a second invasion of Taj Mughal took place in the region of Raja Sou Malik, the son of Torra Khan. He also speaks of Sou Malik’s capture and his imprisonment in Badakhshan. Actually Hashmatullah Khan does not distinguish between Raja Sou Malik I and II and hence mixes up the events of the two monarchs during the region of the later monarch. On the other hand Shah Rais Khan gives a different picture. On the return of Taj Mughal the Gilgit ruler Torra Khan reverted back to his Shia faith. Shah Rais Khan, the ruler of Chitral became very unhappy with this changed attitude of the Gilgit ruler and he reported this change to Taj Mughal, who once again invaded Gilgit all by himself. Raja Torra Khan made all the preparation for defence but while making these arrangements, he died at the young age of fifty-six. He was succeeded by his son Raja Sou Malik II at the age of twenty four.  He ruled for seventy long years from A.D. 1275 to 1345. After the death of his father he commanded the forces of Gilgit and advanced to meet the attack of Taj Mughal by deploying his troops from the fort of Gilgit towards Golapur and on both banks of the Gilgit river right up to Yasin and Darkot Pass. Shah Rais Khan accompanied the invader with his Chitrali forces but did not actively participate in the battle. For eight days fighting went on and finally Taj Mughal’s forces were routed. The Gilgiti forces got the upper hand and they penetrated right into Ghizer area and even to the border of Chitral. He also punished the local people for siding with the invader. This high-handedness of the Gilgit ruler created enmity between the people of Ghizer and those of Gilgit.
During the second period of the Trakhan dynasty in A.D, 1241, Shah Mirza-I was formally enthroned in A.D, 1157 and he ruled until 1210. His son Tar-Torra Khan in A.D, 1210 at the age of 31 years succeeded him. He had two queens, one of his own royal family and another hailed from Darel. The first queen Shah Begum gave birth to Torra Khan, and the second gave birth to Shah Rais. Torra Khan (1241-1275) was brought up in Hodur valley of Chilas under the care of a local chief. While Shah Rais had several maternal uncles in Darel being supported with his mother, intended Shah Rais to be the next ruler; but the king through a Jirga in a democratic way preferred Torra Khan, which is considered the first public opinion in Gilgit, but this succession tussle led to trouble. The Darel queen and her brothers conspired against the king and the prince and decided to kill Torra Khan in a polo match at Darel. However the king won the game and all the seven brothers were executed as per rule. The Dareli queen became neglected, and poisoned the king in 1236, and she took the power and ruled until 1241. She intended to kill Torra Khan, but his stepfather, who was the chief of Hodur, sent Torra Khan away in Khanberi and hid him in an unknown place. The queen made all arrangements to pass on the throne to her own son, Shah Rais. In the meantime, she died in 1241, and it was followed by a war of succession between the two brothers. The local people ultimately declared Torra Khan as their ruler in A.D, 1275. 48
The statement of Dr. Dani is very surprising as summarized that, “However, it is known from works of Nasir-i-Khusrau that Ismailism had already spread in Badakshan. But there is no evidence to show that at this time Ismaili faith was introduced in this part.” The statement is totally confusing and incorrect with sense that he might have been influenced of the prevailing political and reglious atmosphere and therefore has ignored the fact that the Ismaili faith was pronounced as Mughali in the northern areas. During his stay in Gilgit, these historical accounts were several times discussed personally with Dr. Dani, but despite of the clearly and well-known facts he created mysteriously confusion, which I think is an intellectual dishonesty.  
During the rule of his stepbrother, Raja Rais Khan had left Gilgit and took refuge in Badakhshan with an Ismaili devotee, Taj Mughal, the son-in-law of the ruler of Badakhshan. According to Dr. Ahmad Hasan Dani in "History of Northern Areas of Pakistan" (Islamabad, 1991, p. 170), "Taj Mughal is said to be a follower of Ismaili sect and very ardent in its propagation. He received Raja Shah Rais Khan with great honor and made him stay in a graceful place. Shah Rais Khan accepted Ismaili faith alongwith his followers" and married daughter of Taj Mughal. After a certain period of time, Raja Shah Rais persuaded Taj Mughal to invade Gilgit. Preparations were made for this campaign then the regions were invaded after subjugating Yasin, Koh Ghizer and Punial were finally merged with Gilgit, Which was ruled by Torra Khan, who at length un-conditionally accepted the Ismaili faith and made necessary arrangements to preach Ismaili faith in Gilgit and surrounding regions. The rule of Torra Khan was restored in Gilgit Region. Before his second invasion of Gilgit Taj Mughal conquered upper Chitral and Shah Rais being his son-in- law was made the ruler of Chitral, where he founded the Raisy dynasty in A.D 1320 and promulgated the Ismaili faith in upper Chitral region. 49
In recognition of the victory, the soldiers of Taj Mughal built a monument ‘Mughali Tower’ at Jutial, and another on the way to Hunza- Nagar at Thol. Taj Mughal after establishing his rule over the Gilgit region proceeded to Sinkiang/Xinjiang through the Pamir, and thus he dominated most of the prominent regions of Central Asia. Dani History of Northern Areas. 50
Prof; Dani was of the view that the tower at Jutial is a Buddhist stupa but after research it was confirmed that the design of the monument is totally different from the design of a typical Buddhist stupa. He might had gotten influenced from the prevailing local reglious environment of Gilgit in declaring the monument as Buddhist stupa, as the monument at Thol Nagar have entirely been destroyed and eliminated from existence.
The History of Civilization of Central Asia clearly described at page 217, that “the reign of Rajah Torra Khan (1241-75) was marked by great events. His own stepbrother, Shah Rais Khan born of a Dareli queen, fled from Gilgit and took shelter with the king of Badakhshan, whose name is given as Taj Mughal, perhaps to be corrected as Tajdar-i- Mughal, who is said to have been a follower of the Ismailia Shia sect. The Badakhshan ruler invaded Gilgit, snatched Chitral from Torra Khan and Placed Shah Rais Khan on Chitral’s throne. This was the beginning of the Ra’isiya dynasty there. According to traditions Taj Mughal introduced Ismailism into Gilgit, but this lacks confirmation. In any event, the ruler of Gilgit is said to have abandoned Ismailism. As a result there was a second Invasion, but Gilgit forces defended their territory steadfastly. In the course of this campaign, Rajah Torra Khan died, he was succeeded by his son Sau Malik II (1275-1345).”  Editors of Volume IV were M.S Asimov and C.E. Bosworth on behalf of UNESCO, but Dr. Dani was a contributor. In the above passage that Dr. Dani suggested to corrected name and introduction of Ismailism in Gilgit has been doubted inspite of compact evidence. It is a common phenomenon that every scholar of his time modifies historical facts according to his choice and understandings.
After so many events and conquests, as narrated in the Cambridge History of India volume: III: Page 55-56 Published by S. Chand & Company (Pvt.) Ltd. Ram Nagar New Delhi -110055 India, the event inrespect of the Ismailies is very amazing, which states  “that a serious reglious disturbance broke out in Delhi where a large community of fanatics of the Ismaili sect had gradually established itself. They may have been irritated by persecution but they appear to have believed that if they could compass the king’s death they might be able to make their own faith as the state religion. They plotted to assassinate Iltutmish when he visited the great mosque for the Friday prayers, which he wanted to attend unostentatiously and without guards. One Friday, accordingly, while the congregation was at prayers, a large body of Ism’ilis ran into the mosque armed, drew their swords, and attempted to cut their way through kneeling multitude to the Sultan, but before they could reach him he made his escape and, the alarm having given, the people crowded the roofs, walls, gateways of the mosque and with shower of arrows missiles annihilated the heretics. Such adherents of the sect as remained were diligently sought and were put to death.” 51
The famous scholar and researcher, Al-waiz Abdullah Jan has dedicated a full chapter-5, to Taj Mughal the first Ismaili invader and preacher in Gilgit region, with reference of Hashmatullah Khan, Raja Shah Rais Khan, Haji Qudratullah Baig, Prof; Ahmad Hasan Dani, Mirza Muhammad Ghufran of Chitral, and Ghulam Muhammad. The traditional folklore in the territory with respect of pronouncing Mughali to the Ismailis and its influence over the region is unforgettable happening and incident especially for those who born before 1947. The author has explained invasion of Taj Mughal with special reference of local backrounds and traditions. 52
Abdul Hamid Khawar hailing from Juglot was serving in police department at the most senior level, as Assistant Inspector General of Police of the Northern Areas, was a close associate of Dr. Ahmad Hassan Dani. When Dr. Dani undertook the project of the History of Northern Areas, he visited Gilgit and asked me to drive him to the resident of AIGP Abdul Hamid Khawar. During the meeting they discussed several historical events connected with Gilgit Baltistan. Because of the valuable continuations of Khawar, Dr. Dani was able to compile the ‘History of Northern Areas’. Abdul Hamid Khawar had a huge collection of historical material on Gilgit Baltistan, which was great treasure. His son engineer Abdul Wahid of PWD has compiled his work in the history of Dardistan and Boloristan, as life could not provided a chance to Khawar to publish his work.
Khawar, being a native had good knowledge compared to the contemporary scholars because of the reason that he had access to the indigenous people, was well known in each and every corner of the region and was the most travelled local officer of police department. He confirmed invasion of Taj Mughal stating that about 1320 A.D, Taj Mughal an Ismaili leader from Badakhshan conquered Gilgit and Raja Tara Khan accepted the Ismaili faith. Later on Taj Mughal went back to Badakhshan.53
While describing the history of Chitral at Page 146-147, the author further emphasized that might be in 1210 A.D, Sou Malik drove out the Kalash rulers from Chitral and established his rule over Chitral with capital at Darosh. Birgosh the son of Sou Malik extended his rule up to Gilgit, Nagar and Hunza. Approximately in 1320 A.D, Taj Mughal an Ismaili leader invaded Chital with his forces through Broghil and appointed Nadir Rais as the ruler of Chitral and went back to Badakhshan. Since then the Ismaili faith was established and developed in the region. On his second attack through Shandur pass Taj Mughal invaded Gilgit and the surrounding regions during the reign of Tara Khan of Gilgit, who accepted the Ismaili faith. Hence Taj Mughal handed over the rule of Gilgit to Tara Khan and went back to Badakhshan through Sariqul. According to Khawar the author, Taj Mughal installed Shah Nadir Rais as the ruler of Chitral with a strong independent established government, and as founder of the Raisy dynasty. 54
Prof; Usman Ali, a soft spoken, well-known literary personality of Gilgit Baltistan, as a teacher, provided education to all without any cast and creed, as a scholar, served the people of Gilgit Baltistan by disseminating the massage of love, peace, brotherhood and tranquility and overall a humble human being. Some people tried to make his literary work controversial in the year 2000 after publishing his book ‘Karakorum ke Qabail’ might be because of the definition of Mughal and Tara Khan. In my opinion any inclusive comprehensive clarification and justification may some time lead to confusions and misunderstandings.
Professor Usman Ali explained the invasion of Taj Mughal with the consideration to clarify and remove the misinterpretations with reference of Dr. Leitner, Hashmatullah Khan and Fida Ali Esar at page 121-122 and finally drew his conclusion at the end of chapte-5 in the following manner:
Translation: “Anyhow Taj Mughal arrived in Gilgit. It was not his objective to establish his rule over the acquired/ conquered land and concluded plundering, but was with prime intention to disseminate and complete the purpose of his mission to spread his faith. In this connection he was accompanied with large number of Sufis, ulmas and along with strong group of missionaries. Taj Mughal performed the mission of communication (Tabligh) through the group of preachers. As it is a common phenomenon that some people from the foreign invaders always left behind with the determination to complete certain specific objectives; on the same line as the invading forces of Ghaznavids, Khiljis, Temurids, Mongols and Alexander the great were left behind got settled in different regions in and around the Indian Subcontinent. Similarly some people who accompanied Taj Mughal left behind and settled in Gilgit; maybe some of them were belonging from the Tarakhane family/tribe, still living and flourishing in Gilgit. According to traditions that some members of the Tarakhane families of Samarkand already accepted Ismaili faith migrated to Badakhshan and were accompanied by Taj Mughal in his mission to Gilgit, settled here.  Among them were Zawar Safar Ali, Haws Khan, Hyder and Madhu Khan expert of genealogy, who transferred the traditional system of ancestral lineage to different generations. The ancestors of Sharer Abu-Saeed and Azur were the close associates with Taj Mughal.” The author provided family tree from page: 124-128. 55
I tried to carefully translate the contents from the book ‘Qaraqaram ke Qabail’of Professor Usman Ali, however, I would like to take the responsibility of any mistake or misinterpretation. 
It is very surprising to note that inspite of clear description, why the flawless historical account and understanding of Prof: Usman Ali has tried to be made controversial. Interpretation and explanation of any vague and blurred sentence is the right of the author. As such Professor Usman Ali explained the ambiguous accounts and conflicting chronologies in his book.
Chronology of the rulers of Gilgit has been mentioned as under to understand the reign of different rulers.



16    
AD 612 to AD 653
Jayamangala Vikramadityanandi=Agurtham
17
AD 653 to AD 696
Nava Surendraditya Nandi= Abod-Gamo
18
AD 696 to AD 722
Nandi Vikramaditya Nandi=Bagurtham
19
AD 722 to AD 734
Mo-kin-mang =(Makarasimha)
20
AD 734 to AD 741
Nan-ni
21
AD 741 to AD 744
Ma- Hao- Li
22
AD 744 to AD 749
Sou-she-li-tchie--- defeated
23
AD 749 to AD 765
Deva Sri Chandravikramadity=Shri Badat
24
AD 765 to AD 781
Azur Jamshed
25
AD 781 to AD 790
Malika Noor Bakht Khatoon
26
AD 790 to AD 849
Raja Garg
27
AD 849 to AD 927
Sou Malik-I
28
AD 927 to AD 972
Raja Shah Malik Urf Glit-Kalika (Malika)
29
AD 972 to AD 1006
Raja Deng Malik
30
AD 1006 to AD 1056
Raja Khusro Khan-I
31
AD 1056 to AD 1103
Raja Haider Khan
32
AD 1103 to AD 1157
Raja Noor Khan
33
AD 1157 to AD 1210
Raja Shah Mirza-I
34
AD 1210 to AD 1236
Raja Tar-Torra Khan
35
AD 1236 to AD 1241
Rani Tar-Torra Khan
36
AD 1241to AD  1275
Raja Torra Khan-I
37
AD 1275 to AD 1345
Raja Sou Malik-II
38
AD 1343 to AD 1359
Raja Chilis Khan-I
39
AD 1359 to AD1397
Shah Firdaus Khan-I
40
AD 1397 to AD 1422
Raja Khusro Khan-II



Akhondzada Mirza Wahid Afzal Baig son of Moulana Mufti Mirza Abdul Hakim Baig of Chitral described in his book ‘Tarikh Taruf Aqwam Chitral’ the historical account in the manner stating that after Sou Malik Raisy dynasty was established in upper Chitral in 1120 A.D. To expand and establish his rule in lower Chitral he submitted a request to the king of China for financial assistance. At that time the Saljuqs were ruling in Turkistan. The royal family of Saljuqs deputed thousands of forces comprising of Turk and Tajiks under the command of general Bakhshi Khan to provide necessary support to the Raisy Ruler of Chitral. Similarly on behalf of the king of China a Mughal prince Taj Mughal proceeded from Badakhshan for the support of the Raisy ruler of Chitral. Taj Mughal and General Bakhshi Khan with the help of the forces and army under their command conquered Chitral by defeating Skinder Boll-Singh and established his rule over Chitral. Later on Shah Nader Rais established his rule on entire Chitral in 1320. 56
The author has further mentioned genealogy of the Raisy dynasty of pre-Islam in the following manner:
   1.         Shabal Rais
   2.         Durness Rais
   3.         Barjis Rais
   4.         Tarbus Rais
   5.         Thor Khan Rais
After Islam the following have been mentioned at page 42-43.
   1.         Shah Akbar Rais
   2.         Shah Jan Rais
   3.         Shah Qadir Rais
   4.         Shah Nazam Rais
   5.         Shah Nader Rais
   6.         Shah Khan Rais
   7.         Shah Karam Rais
   8.         Shah Shiekhoon Rais
   9.         Shah Qazil Rais
   10.       Shah Karghan Rais
   11.       Shah Jhangir Rais
   12.       Shah Thair Rais
   13.       Shah Bursam Rais
   14.       Shah Nasir Rais
   15.       Shah Abdul Qadir Rais
The author has explored the reason of the fall of the Raisy dynasty in Chitral and it has been declared that the last ruler adopted Ismaili faith as the majority of the people of Chitral were practicing Sunni faith, therefore the did not extend co-operation to the Raisy dynasty. 57
It appeared that the chronology as worked out by the author Akhondzada Mirza Wahid Afzal Baig is correct, matching with the chronologies as mentioned in the Cambridge History of India and Iran, but did not match the chronology as worked out by Mirza Ghufran in his Book. Although the chronology is conflicting but the historical account of Taj Mughal is the same except the name General Bakhshi Khan, as described by other authors.
The same author has written another book in 1999 with the name of ‘Tarikh Qabaile Chitral’ volume II, published Mah Adab Urdu Bazar Lahore, in this book the author has repeated the same historical account with some changes in the chronology of the Raisy dynasty from page: 72-75 with more explanation of the Saljuq dynasty.58
After a great endeavor and an analytical research, Professor Israr-Uddin compiled a book on the history of Chitral under the title and name of ‘The Scattered Pages of the History of Chitral’, in which he has emphasized that after analyzing the scholarly work of Mirza Muhammad Sair during 1812-1830 with reference of German historian Wolfgang Holzwarth, the initial historical work of Mirza Muhammad Ghufran during 1892-1919 with the historical accounts of the contemporary scholars, draw a conclusions that almost all the work of Hashmatullah Khan has provided a strong foundation  to every scholar of Gilgit and Chitral to base the structure of their historical research.
The traditional accounts are undated and based on folklore as described by Rohit Vohra in his research on Ladakh. With reference of Mirza Ghufran; Rohit Vohra described that following the footstep of Taj Mughal Shah Nadir Rais established his rule in upper Chitral, which has been confirmed by Karl Jettmar 455:1975 the German Scholar.59
According to modern research, the credit for the spread of Islam, especially Ismailism, in Chitral goes to Nasir-e-Khusrow. Munir Hussayn Fatimi narrated that Islam spread in Chitral in the middle of the 14th century because of the Raisy family who came to power probably in 1320, endorsed by Col. Muhammad Afzal. Mirza Muhammad Ghufran confirmed the introduction of Islam and Ismaili faith in Chitral through a latter to Khawaja Hassan Nizami, stating that Taj Mughal was an ardent Ismaili preacher who attacked Chitral between A.D, 1320 to 1341 through Broghil Pass and established the Raisy dynasty in Chitral. It is common understanding among the historians that before A.D, 1320 the descendants of Sou Malik of Gilgit ruled the upper Chitral including Mastuj, Tor-Koh, and Mulk-Koh, whereas, the Kalash tribes were ruling the southern Chitral. However, Mirza Muhammad Ghufran confirmed that the people of Mastuj adopted the Ismaili faith during the rule of Torra Khan the king of Gilgit.60
To workout chronology of the events and reign of the rulers, formula of calculation of incidents and happenings as set out by Sir George Cunningham is still persistently exists, inspite of many Lackings, deficiencies and criticism.
However, after numerous observations the author confirmed the historical contents of Mirza Muhammad Ghufran and the conquest of Taj Mughal to Chitral, linking the chronology with the rule of Shah Nadir Rais in 1320. Although the chronology is still conflicting but we have to consider the rule of Saljuqs and uprising of the Mongols including the downfall of the Slave kings in India.61
A thesis written by Irum Sheikh, supervised by Prof. Dr. Hafeez-ur-Rehman Department of Anthropology Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad in 2013 in the partial fulfillment for the award of Doctor of Philosophy degree in Anthropology from Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad in 2013 described in her research paper at Page 35, that, “Ismaili is a branch of Shiite Muslims whose members believe that Ismail, the son of the sixth Imam, was the true seventh Imam. They reside in upper Chitral and were once ruled by prince Sou Malik. They are aware of Islamic traditions and preaching due to the influence and interaction of Arabs in the region. It is believed that prince Sou Malik was pagan. During the reign of Nadir Shah in 1320 a man named Taj Mughal (a preacher) entered Chitral from Khurasan, Iran. He inspired the Muslims and local people of upper Chitral and Gilgit for conversion (Ghufran 1962) 93, but was unable to reach the people of Kalash who took refuge in the three valleys. It is believed that the Persian Ismaili sect might have financed these people who had visited the region with an agenda to spread their religious beliefs to the local people of Upper and lower Chitral, Mastuj, Mulkhow and Torkhow.62’63’64
On the grounds of the above references, there is no misgivings and any doubts that Taj Mughal was a devoted Ismailia and a prince of Badakhshan, invaded Gilgit and Chitral, disinterested to establish his own government, but to disseminate the Ismaili faith in the region. He was successful in his intentions as no destruction, no damage and no absolute harm was given to the general public during his time in the region.
     
               
Signed Board placed by the Government of Pakistan





Note:
I would like to welcome any suggestions, and further research regarding improvement of this article.  

                                                                        Zafar Iqbal     






End Notes.

1.     Page 44. A.L. Basham History of India, The Wonder that was India: Third revised addition:  Published by SDGWICK  & Jackson London.  
2.      Page 44-45. A.L. Basham History of India, The Wonder that was India: III. Revised addition:  Published by SDGWICK  & Jackson London. SDGWICK & Jackson London:
3.         Page: 43-72. Sir Wolseley Haig: The Cambridge History of India:
Volume III: Page 43-73.
4.       Page 440-441: The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5: edited by J. A. Boyle, William Bayne Fisher, John Andrew Boyle, Richard Nelson Frye.
5.       Page 440-441. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5: edited by J. A. Boyle, William Bayne Fisher, John Andrew Boyle, Richard, Nelson Frye.
6.         Page: 24 Tibetan Encyclopedias. Palola.
7.         Page. 120f: Brandon Dotson: The Old Tibetan Annals.
Vienna 2009
8.         Page. 12. Dotson, Brandon Dotson: The Old Tibetan Annals.
Vienna 2009
9.         Encyclopaedia of Ismailism by Mumtaz Ali Tajuddin.
10.    Trevor N. Dupuy and R. Ernest Dupuy, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History, (Harper Collins Publishers, 1993, 366.)
11.        Sverdrup, Carl (2010). "Numbers in Mongol Warfare." Journal of
Medieval Military History: Boydell Press. 8. 109–17 [p. 113].
ISBN 978-1-84383-596-7.)
12.      A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the
Modern Middle: Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, 2010, P. 273.
13.      Pages. 230-31Tabaqat-i Nasiri' (tr. by Ghulam Rasul Maher, Lahore, 1975, 2nd: Volume.
14.    Pages. 453-501. By Max van Berchem. (1863-1903) Epigraphie des Assassins de Syrie (JA, 9 series, ix, 1897)
15.      Page. 135. The Mongol Empire (London, 1976) (ALAUDDIN
MUHAMMAD (618-653/1221-1255), 26TH IMAM of Ismaili.
16.       The Encyclopedia of Ismailism. Mumtaz Ali Taj-ud-din Sadiq
17.       Page-687- 695. Moulana Siraj-u-Minaj Juzjani at, in his book of history Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.           
18.       Page: 687: Moulana Siraj-u- Minaj Juzjani. ‘Tabaqat-i-Nasiri’
Translated by Moulana Ghulam Rasool Maher, Edited by
Syed Hissam-ud-din Rashidi: Published by Markazi Urdu Board
Gulbarge Lahore in 1975.
Muhammad Ghori (a Persian) was born in1149 known as Sultan of the Ghourid Empire. He was one of the rulers of the Ghourid dynasty and is credited with laying the foundation of Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent. He ruled over parts of Afghanistan, Iran, northern India, including Pakistan, and Tajikistan. He was assassination on March 15, 1206 either by an Ismailis or by a Hindu Khokhar.
Reference:
Richards 2010, Page. 65. Richards, D.S. (2010). The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al-Kamil fi'l-Ta'rikh. Part 3. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 1–344. ISBN 9780754669524.
Fakhar al-Din Mas’ud was the son of Izz al-Din Husayn and a Turkic woman. He also had several brothers named Sayf al-Din Suri, Baha al-Din Sam I, Shahab al-Din Muhammad Kharnak, Shuja al-din Ali, Ala al-Din Husayn, and Qutb al-Din Muhammad. After the death of Izz al-Din Husayn, Saif al-Din Suri ascended the throne, and divided the Ghourid kingdom among his brothers; Fakhar al-Din Mas’ud received land near the Hari River Murghab; Baha-al-Din Sam-I received Ghur; Shihab al-Din Muhammad Kharnak received Madin; Shuja al-Din Ali received Jarmas; Ala al-Din Husayn received Waghjiristan; and Qutb al-Din Muhammad received Warshadi.
Fakhar al-Din Mas’ud, however, claimed the throne for him, and had allied with Taj al-Din Yaldoz, the Seljuq governor of Herat, and Balkh. However, after so many battles Fakhar al-Din Mas’ud restored him as the ruler of Bamiyan in1204. Fakhar al-Din Mas’ud shortly died the same year, and was succeeded by his son Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Mas’ud.
Pp. 185-186History of Civilizations of Central Asia, C.E. Bosworth, M.S. Asimov.
The Iranian World, C.E. Bosworth, The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 5, ed. J. A. Boyle, John Andrew Boyle, (Cambridge University Press, 1968), 161-170.
Taj al-Din Zangi (Persian) was the second son of the ruler of Bamiyan, Fakhar al-din Mas’ud. He had two brother named Shamsuddin Muhammad and Hissam-ud-din Ali. His name was first appeared during the conquest of western Khurasan, where he was appointed as the governor of Sarakhs, and was also given Abiward and Nasa as part of his domains. In 1201/2, the Khwarzam-shah Muhammad II invaded Khurasan, and besieged Sarakhs. Taj al-Din managed to trick Muhammad II by pretending to leave the city to him, but then plundered a Khwarzamian camp, where he managed to get supplies for his army and for the people of the city. The Ghurid prince Nasir al-Din Muhammad Kharnak shortly came to the aid of Zangi, and inflicted a heavy defeat on the Khwarzamian. Sarakhs was a city of Khurasan once a stopping point along the Silk Road. The Mongols plundered and destroyed Sarakhs in 1220. Taj-ud-din is said to be son of Shamsuddin, who conquered, Wakhan, Chitral and Gilgit.
Reference:
Richards 2010, pages. 87, 65
Bosworth, C. E. (1968). "The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)". In Frye, R. N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5: The Saljuq and Mongol periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–202. ISBN 0-521-06936-X.
Richards, D.S. (2010). The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al-Kamil fi'l-Ta'rikh. Part 3. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 1–344. ISBN 9780754669524.
https://www.amar.org.ir/english.
19.        Page: 598-599 Yahya Amjad in the History of Pakistan published in 1997 by Niaz Ahmad of Sang-i- Meel Publications Lahore ISBN: 96935-0776-2:
20.        Page; 66: Sir Wolseley Haig The Cambridge History of India; Volume III; S. Chand & Company Ram Nagar New Delhi India-110055
21.        Page, 332-340: ‘Political History of the Muslim in the reign of Abbasid’ Volume II Printed by Shirkat printing Lahore from and Published by Iddrah Mutallia Tarikh Lahore.
22.        Page 136, in his book ‘Surviving the Mongols’ Published by the
Institute if Ismaili Studies London.
23.        Page: 148: Urdu translation of Dr. Aziz-ullah Najeeb.
24.        Page 140-141: Nadia Eboo Jamal ‘Surviving the Mongols’ Published by the Institute if Ismaili Studies London.
25.        Page: 386-387, Tarikh-i-Jehan Kushahai, edited by Muhammad Qizwani. Published in Iran in 2012 vide
ISBN: 978-964-351-513-3.
26.        www.entesharanegah. Info@entesharanegah.com--
Email: negahpublisher@yahoo.com.
27.        Page: 688. Tabaqat-i-Nasri Translation Moulana Ghulam Rasool Maher, Edited by Syed Hassam ud-din Rashidi, Published by Markazi Urdu Board, 61, Railway Road in January 1975 Lahore:
28.    Mirza Fazlalibig, Tarikh-e-Badakhshan [Istoria Badakhshana],   ………..edited by A.N. Boldyrev (Leningrad: Izd-vo Leningradskogo . ………..Universiteta, 1959), pp. 3-11.
29.        Mumtaz Ali Tajuddin Ahmad Sadiq Ali. The End of Taqiyya: Reaffirming the Religious Identity of Ismailis in Shughnan, Badakhshan - Political Implications for Afghanistan. Email: alymumtaz@yahoo.com
30.        Mumtaz Ali Tajuddin Ahmad Sadiq Ali. Taqiyya: Reaffirming the Religious Identity of Ismailis in Shughnan, Badakhshan - Political Implications for Afghanistan.  Email: alymumtaz@yahoo.com
31.        Farhad Daftary, The Ismailis: their History and Doctrines (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p.444.
32.        Emadi, `Politics of Transformation and Ismailis in Gorno-Badakhshan, Tajikistan', Internationales Asienforum 29 (1998).
33.        Abdul Hai Habibi, Tarikh-e-Afghanistan bad az Islam [A History of Afghanistan after Islam] (Kabul: Education Press, 1345/1966), pp.873-4.
34.        Mumtaz Ali Tajuddin Ahmad Sadiq Ali. The End of Taqiyya: Reaffirming the Religious Identity of Ismailis in Shughnan, Badakhshan - Political Implications for Afghanistan. Encyclopedia of Ismailia.  Email: alymumtaz@yahoo.com
35.        Daftary, The Isamilis, pp. 120-25.
36.          Henry Corbin, `Nasir-e-Khusraw and Iranian Ismailism', pp. 520-42, in Richard N. Frye (ed.), The Cambridge
History of Iran: The Periods from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuks, Vol.4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975).
37.        Fazlali Baig, Tarikh-e-Badakhshan, pp. 239-43.
38.        Daftary, The Ismailis, p.454.
39.        The Mongol Empire (London, 1976, p. 135)
40.        Tibetan Encyclopeadia.
41.        Reference: Page: 682- 684: History of Jammu: Alhaj Molvi
Hashmatullah Khan Lakhnowvi. Published (second addition) Punjab National Press Lahore 1968:
42.        Reference: Page 120: Gilgit and Shina Zaban (Language) First addition
1961: Published Urdu Academy Bahawalpur, Printed in Feroz sons
Limited 365 Circular Road Lahore:
43.        Page 28-29: Mirza Ghufran the History of Chitral (Nayi-Tarikh-i-
Chitral), 1961 Translated to Urdu by Lt. Mirza Ghulam Murtaza through Wazir Ali Shah Government treasurer Chitral:
44.        Page 50: Colonel R.C.F. Schomberg: Between the Oxus and Indus;
Published by Al-Biruni; Al-Rahman building 65, the Mall, Lahore.
45.        Page: 4. History of Gilgit: Published by Director, Centre for the
Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Quaid-i-Azam
University Islamabad. Printed at Khurshid Printers (Pvt.) Ltd.
Islamabad in, 1987:
45.        Chapter.3.pdf.Shodhganga. shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream
10603/60810/9/09. Chapter % 20
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Islamabad in, 1987
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Edited by M.S Asimov and C.E Bosworth, Complied and
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48.        Page 174-175. History of Northern Areas of Pakistan: Prof; Ahmad
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49.        Page: 28-29 Mirza Ghufran: History of Chitral.  
50.        The Trakhan dynasty in Central Asia – Ismaili.net.
www.ismaili.net/histoire/history07/history705.html
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S. Chand & Company (Pvt.) Ltd. Ram Nagar New Delhi -110055 India:
52.        Page: 74-91: Al-waiz Abdullah Jan; Tarikh Da’wat Ismailia
Shumali I’lla’qajat: Published by Minerva advertising and publications Blue area Islamabad: 2008.
53.        Page: 49. Tarikh Aqwam Dardistan aur Boloristan, published in
2009 by Abdul Wahid and brothers; Khawar Manzil Jutial Gilgit:
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55.        (Reference: Page: 122-123: Professor Usman Ali. ‘Qaraqaram ke
Qabail’ published in 2000 by Sang-e- Meel Publication Lahore.
 069-35-1138-7).
46.        Page 41-42: Akhondzada Mirza Wahid Afzal Baig son of Moulana
Mufti Mirza Abdul Hakim Baig of Chitral described in his book
Tarikh Taruf Aqwam Chitral. Published in 1996: Printed by Raheel
Printers Peshawar.
56.        Page.44. Akhondzada Mirza Wahid Afzal Baig son of Moulana mufti Mirza Abdul Hakim Baig of Chitral described in his book Tarikh Taruf Aqwam Chitral. Published in 1996: Printed by Raheel Printers; Peshawar.
58.        Page: 72-75 Akhondzada Mirza Wahid Afzal Baig son of Moulana
Mufti Mirza Abdul Hakim Baig of Chitral: ‘Tarikh Qabaile Chitral’ Volume II, published Mah Adab Urdu Bazar Lahore.
59.        Page 230-231: Rohit Vohra: Recent Research on Ladakh 4 & 5:
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60.        Article: By Munir Hussayn Fatimi: A Saint who still rules many
hearts; dated April 27, 2012. Chitral Today.           
61.        Page: 17-20: Prof; Israruddin; The Scattered Pages of the
History of Chitral’ Published by Maktab-e-Jamal; Hussain Market
Urdu Bazar Lahore- 2016.
62.        Mirza Muhammad Gufran. Nai Tarikh -e-Chitral. Translated from
Persian in to Urdu by Ghulum Murtaza Peshawar: Public Art Press.
63.        Traditional Culture as a Space for Identity (A case study of village
Bumburet Kalash Valley)
64.        A thesis written in the partial fulfillment for the award of
Doctor of Philosophy degree in Anthropology B Irum Sheikh
Supervised by Prof. Dr. Hafeez ur Rehman Department of
Anthropology Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad in 2013
                         
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1 comment:

  1. Tayib Jan18 September 2022 at 22:22

    Extremely vital information to refer to for the purpose of understanding Taj Mughal and the daua moment in Gilgit Baltistan

    ReplyDelete

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